European Colonisation of Africa
Senior 2 · History
European Colonisation of Africa
Lesson 3 of 4
22 min
Once a territory was conquered, it had to be governed. Each colonial power developed its own style, though in practice they overlapped. The system chosen affected which Africans gained power, how traditional institutions survived, and what kind of tensions were left at independence. Rwanda's experience under Germany and Belgium, which you study next, is a case of these systems in action.
Indirect rule meant governing through existing African rulers and institutions, under the supervision of European officials. It is linked with Frederick Lugard, who governed Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906 and ruled through the emirs of the conquered Sokoto Caliphate.
Why the British used it: it was cheap and needed few British officials; it used institutions people already accepted, which reduced resistance; and Britain lacked the staff and money to rule directly. Where it was used: Northern Nigeria, Buganda (through the 1900 Agreement), and Tanganyika from the mid-1920s.
Problems: where there were no chiefs, as among the Igbo of south-eastern Nigeria, the British appointed "warrant chiefs" whom people did not accept, which contributed to protests such as the Women's War of 1929. Chiefs became answerable to the colonial power rather than their people. Indirect rule also hardened ethnic differences.
Under direct rule, European officials governed directly, and traditional rulers were removed or reduced to junior agents. Germany in Tanganyika used akidas and jumbes, often coastal agents who were strangers to the people they ruled, and who became hated for their harshness. Settler colonies such as Kenya were also governed largely directly.
Assimilation aimed to turn Africans into French people culturally: speaking French, following French law and customs, and in theory becoming French citizens. Colonies were run centrally; French West Africa (formed in 1895) was governed by a Governor-General at Dakar.
Because full assimilation proved impractical and expensive, France shifted in the early twentieth century towards association, which accepted local customs and used chiefs, but as junior officials firmly under French control.
From 1885 to 1908 the Congo Free State was the personal property of King Leopold II. Forced collection of wild rubber, enforced by hostage-taking, mutilation and killing, caused the deaths of very many people; estimates run into the millions. After an international outcry, the Belgian state took over the colony in 1908. Belgium then ruled by paternalism: treating Africans like children who needed guidance, providing basic primary education and health care, often through missions, but denying higher education and political rights. Belgium later governed Rwanda and Burundi as well.
Question: Compare British indirect rule with French assimilation.
Similarity: both aimed to control African territories cheaply for European benefit, and both in practice relied on African chiefs and clerks. Differences: indirect rule preserved African institutions and customs, ruling through traditional leaders, while assimilation aimed to replace African culture with French culture. Indirect rule was decentralised, with each area run through its own rulers; the French system was centralised under a Governor-General. Indirect rule kept Africans as separate "natives", while assimilation offered citizenship, though only to a very small minority.
Tip
Compare with a table. For "compare" questions, draw three columns: feature, indirect rule, assimilation. Rows: who rules day to day, what happens to African culture, centralised or not, citizenship, examples. A table lets you score similarities and differences quickly and clearly.
Define indirect rule and name the official most associated with it.
Solution. Governing a colony through existing African rulers and institutions, supervised by European officials. It is associated with Frederick Lugard in Northern Nigeria.
Give two reasons why the British preferred indirect rule.
Solution. Any two of: it was cheap; it needed few British officials; people already accepted their traditional rulers, so there was less resistance; Britain lacked enough staff and money for direct rule.
Who were the évolués?
Solution. Africans in French colonies who had French education and culture and could qualify for French citizen rights. They were a very small minority.
What was Belgian paternalism?
Solution. Belgium's policy of treating Africans as children to be guided: it provided basic education and health care, often through missions, but gave Africans no political rights and very little higher education.
Remember
Sources and credits
This lesson adapts CC BY-SA material and is shared under CC BY-SA 4.0.
