Fundamental Principles
Senior 3 · History and Citizenship
Fundamental Principles
Lesson 4 of 4
25 min
How would you know whether the fundamental principles work? One way is to ask the people. Since 2010 the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC) has surveyed Rwandans every five years for the Rwanda Reconciliation Barometer. Its results for the overall status of reconciliation are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Reconciliation rose from 82.3% in 2010 to 94.7% in 2020. (NURC's tasks passed to the Ministry of National Unity and Civic Engagement, MINUBUMWE, in 2021.)
Analysing the source. The trend is clearly upward, which suggests the principles of unity, dialogue and the fight against genocide ideology are taking hold. But read a survey with care. It measures what people say, and some may not say what they really think. The same report also lists what still hinders reconciliation: the 2015 Barometer named ethnic-based stereotypes (27.9%) and lingering genocide ideology (25.8%) among the main factors, and the 2020 report warns that negative ethnic ideas are still passed on in some families. A high score is progress, not the end of the task.
Definition
Stereotype: a fixed, over-simple and often false idea about all members of a group, such as "girls are bad at mathematics".
Corruption: the misuse of public power or position for private gain, for example asking for a bribe before giving a service.
Barometer: here, a survey repeated over time to measure how a situation is changing, like an instrument that measures air pressure.
Principles are tested in ordinary moments, not only in Parliament. For each situation, name the principle and decide what a responsible citizen does.
| Situation | Principle at stake | What a responsible citizen does |
|---|---|---|
| During Kwibuka, a message in a class WhatsApp group says the genocide "was not planned". | (a) fighting denial and genocide ideology | Does not forward it; explains that the genocide was planned; tells a teacher; the crime can be reported to the Rwanda Investigation Bureau (RIB) on 166. |
| A classmate is mocked for his accent and the region he comes from. | (b) no discrimination or divisionism | Refuses to join in, supports the classmate, and raises it with the class teacher. |
| Only boys are nominated to stand as class representative. | (d) equality between women and men | Encourages girls to stand and votes for the best candidate, whoever it is. |
| A pupil who uses a wheelchair cannot reach the upstairs library. | (e) social welfare and equal opportunity | Asks the school to move the books or the lesson; helps the pupil take part. |
| Two families argue over the boundary between their plots. | (f) dialogue and consensus | Talks first; if that fails, goes to the Abunzi Committee before a court. |
| An official asks for money before signing a document that should be free. | (d) rule of law | Refuses to pay a bribe and reports it, for example to the Office of the Ombudsman. |
An honest assessment weighs both sides.
Figure 2. The strengths are heavier today, but the challenges have not disappeared.
| Challenges | Strengths |
|---|---|
| Genocide ideology and denial persist, especially on social media and among some groups abroad, and rise around each commemoration. | A strong legal base: Article 10 and Law N° 59 of 2018 make genocide ideology, denial and minimisation crimes. |
| Stereotypes are still passed on in some families, as the Reconciliation Barometer reports. | Institutions such as MINUBUMWE, the courts, the Ombudsman and the Gender Monitoring Office watch over the principles. |
| Poverty limits what the state and families can spend on welfare. | Home-grown solutions such as Umuganda, the abunzi and Umushyikirano bring citizens into problem-solving; the Gacaca courts tried genocide cases in the communities until they closed in 2012. |
| Corruption by some officials breaks the rule of law. | Women in decision-making: 51 of the 80 deputies elected in 2024 are women. |
| Gender stereotypes about work at home survive even where the law gives equal rights. | Citizen participation: Kwibuka, Umuganda and elections involve millions of people. |
| Unhealed wounds: trauma among survivors and families remains. | Peace and security since 1994, which the preamble calls pillars of development. |
Worked example: a "to what extent" answer
Question: To what extent has Rwanda achieved the principle of eradicating discrimination and divisionism? (8 marks)
1. Evidence of success. The law forbids political organisations based on ethnic group, region or religion (Article 57), and identity cards no longer carry ethnic labels. The Reconciliation Barometer measured reconciliation at 94.7% in 2020, up from 82.3% in 2010.
2. Evidence of limits. The same Barometer reports that negative ethnic ideas are still passed on in some families, and genocide ideology still appears online, especially around Kwibuka.
3. Judgement. Rwanda has achieved the principle to a large extent in law and in public life, where discrimination is banned and punished. It is less complete in private life, in homes and online, where change depends on each citizen. The principle is well established, but it needs constant effort.
Tip
"To what extent" wants a judgement. Give evidence for, evidence against, then a clear verdict with a phrase such as "to a large extent", "partly" or "only a little", and say why.
Warning
Don't treat a percentage as proof on its own. Say where it comes from (who, when, how measured) and what it can and cannot show. A survey of opinions is strong evidence of how people feel, weaker evidence of how they act.
Which challenge in Figure 2 do you think young people can do most to overcome, and how? Which one needs the government most? Give a reason for each.
Practice
Further reading
Sources and credits
